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[helm.git] / helm / software / matita / nlibrary / topology / igft.ma

(*D

Matita Tutorial: inductively generated formal topologies
======================================================== 

This is a not so short introduction to [Matita][2], based on
the formalization of the paper

> Between formal topology and game theory: an
> explicit solution for the conditions for an
> inductive generation of formal topologies

by Stefano Berardi and Silvio Valentini. 

The tutorial is by Enrico Tassi. 

The tutorial spends a considerable amount of effort in defining 
notations that resemble the ones used in the original paper. We believe
this is a important part of every formalization, not only from the aesthetic 
point of view, but also from the practical point of view. Being 
consistent allows to follow the paper in a pedantic way, and hopefully
to make the formalization (at least the definitions and proved
statements) readable to the author of the paper. 

The formalization uses the ng (new generation) version of Matita
(that will be named 1.x when finally released). 
Last stable release of the "old" system is named 0.5.7; the ng system
is coexisting with the old one in every development release 
(named "nightly builds" in the download page of Matita) 
with a version strictly greater than 0.5.7.

To read this tutorial in HTML format, you need a decent browser
equipped with a unicode capable font. Use the PDF format if some
symbols are not displayed correctly.

Orienteering
------------

The graphical interface of Matita is composed of three windows:
the script window, on the left, is where you type; the sequent
window on the top right is where the system shows you the ongoing proof;
the error window, on the bottom right, is where the system complains.
On the top of the script window five buttons drive the processing of
the proof script. From left to right they request the system to:

- go back to the beginning of the script
- go back one step
- go to the current cursor position
- advance one step
- advance to the end of the script

When the system processes a command, it locks the part of the script
corresponding to the command, such that you cannot edit it anymore 
(without going back). Locked parts are coloured in blue.

The sequent window is hyper textual, i.e. you can click on symbols
to jump to their definition, or switch between different notations
for the same expression (for example, equality has two notations,
one of them makes the type of the arguments explicit).  

Everywhere in the script you can use the `ncheck (term).` command to
ask for the type a given term. If you do that in the middle of a proof,
the term is assumed to live in the current proof context (i.e. can use
variables introduced so far).

To ease the typing of mathematical symbols, the script window
implements two unusual input facilities:

- some TeX symbols can be typed using their TeX names, and are 
  automatically converted to UTF-8 characters. For a list of 
  the supported TeX names, see the menu: View ▹ TeX/UTF-8 Table.
  Moreover some ASCII-art is understood as well, like `=>` and `->`
  to mean double or single arrows.
  Here we recall some of these "shortcuts":

  - ∀ can be typed with `\forall`
  - λ can be typed with `\lambda`
  - ≝ can be typed with `\def` or `:=`
  - → can be typed with `\to` or `->`
  
- some symbols have variants, like the ≤ relation and ≼, ≰, ⋠.
  The user can cycle between variants typing one of them and then
  pressing ALT-L. Note that also letters do have variants, for
  example W has Ω, 𝕎 and 𝐖, L has Λ, 𝕃, and 𝐋, F has Φ, … 
  Variants are listed in the aforementioned TeX/UTF-8 table. 

The syntax of terms (and types) is the one of the λ-calculus CIC
on which Matita is based. The main syntactical difference w.r.t. 
the usual mathematical notation is the function application, written
`(f x y)` in place of `f(x,y)`. 

Pressing `F1` opens the Matita manual.

CIC (as [implemented in Matita][3]) in a nutshell
------------------------------------------------- 

CIC is a full and functional Pure Type System (all products do exist,
and their sort is is determined by the target) with an impredicative sort
Prop and a predicative sort Type. It features both dependent types and 
polymorphism like the [Calculus of Constructions][4]. Proofs and terms share
the same syntax, and they can occur in types. 

The environment used for in the typing judgement can be populated with
well typed definitions or theorems, (co)inductive types validating positivity
conditions and recursive functions provably total by simple syntactical 
analysis (recursive calls are allowed only on structurally smaller subterms). 
Co-recursive 
functions can be defined as well, and must satisfy the dual condition, i.e.
performing the recursive call only after having generated a constructor (a piece
of output).

The CIC λ-calculus is equipped with a pattern matching construct (match) on inductive
types defined in the environment. This construct, together with the possibility to
definable total recursive functions, allows to define eliminators (or constructors)
for (co)inductive types. The λ-calculus is also equipped with explicitly typed 
local definitions (let in) that in the degenerate case work as casts (i.e.
the type annotation `(t : T)`  is implemented as `let x : T ≝ t in x`). 

Types are compare up to conversion. Since types may depend on terms, conversion
involves β-reduction, δ-reduction (definition unfolding), ζ-reduction (local
definition unfolding), ι-reduction (pattern matching simplification),
μ-reduction (recursive function computation) and ν-reduction (co-fixpoint
computation).

Since we are going to formalize constructive and predicative mathematics
in an intensional type theory like CIC, we try to establish some terminology. 
Type is the sort of sets equipped with the `Id` equality (i.e. an intensional,
not quotiented set). We will avoid using `Id` (Leibniz equality), 
thus we will explicitly equip a set with an equivalence relation when needed.
We will call this structure a _setoid_. Note that we will
attach the infix `=` symbol only to the equality of a setoid,
not to Id.

We write `Type[i]` to mention a Type in the predicative hierarchy 
of types. To ease the comprehension we will use `Type[0]` for sets, 
and `Type[1]` for classes. The index `i` is just a label: constraints among
universes are declared by the user. The standard library defines

> Type[0] < Type[1] < Type[2]

For every `Type[i]` there is a corresponding level of predicative
propositions `CProp[i]`. A predicative proposition cannot be eliminated toward
`Type[j]` unless it holds no computational content (i.e. it is an inductive type
with 0 or 1 constructors with propositional arguments, like `Id` and `And` 
but not like `Or`). 


The standard library and the `include` command
----------------------------------------------

Some basic notions, like subset, membership, intersection and union
are part of the standard library of Matita.

These notions come with some standard notation attached to them:

- A ∪ B can be typed with `A \cup B`
- A ∩ B can be typed with `A \cap B` 
- A ≬ B can be typed with `A \between B`
- x ∈ A can be typed with `x \in A` 
- Ω^A, that is the type of the subsets of A, can be typed with `\Omega ^ A` 

The `include` command tells Matita to load a part of the library, 
in particular the part that we will use can be loaded as follows: 

D*)

include "sets/sets.ma".

(*D

Some basic results that we will use are also part of the sets library:

- subseteq\_union\_l: ∀A.∀U,V,W:Ω^A.U ⊆ W → V ⊆ W → U ∪ V ⊆ W
- subseteq\_intersection\_r: ∀A.∀U,V,W:Ω^A.W ⊆ U → W ⊆ V → W ⊆ U ∩ V

Defining Axiom set
------------------

A set of axioms is made of a set(oid) `S`, a family of sets `I` and a 
family `C` of subsets of `S` indexed by elements `a` of `S` 
and elements of `I(a)`.

It is desirable to state theorems like "for every set of axioms, …"
without explicitly mentioning S, I and C. To do that, the three 
components have to be grouped into a record (essentially a dependently
typed tuple). The system is able to generate the projections
of the record automatically, and they are named as the fields of
the record. So, given an axiom set `A` we can obtain the set
with `S A`, the family of sets with `I A` and the family of subsets
with `C A`.

D*)

nrecord Ax : Type[1] ≝ { 
  S :> Type[0];
  I :  S → Type[0];
  C :  ∀a:S. I a → Ω^S
}.

(*D

Forget for a moment the `:>` that will be detailed later, and focus on
the record definition. It is made of a list of pairs: a name, followed
by `:` and the its type. It is a dependently typed tuple, thus
already defined names (fields) can be used in the types that follow. 

Note that `S` is declared to be a `setoid` and not a Type. The original
paper probably also considers I to generate setoids, and both I and C
to be (dependent) morphisms. For the sake of simplicity, we will "cheat" and use
setoids only when strictly needed (i.e. where we want to talk about 
equality). Setoids will play a role only when we will define
the alternative version of the axiom set.

Note that the field `S` was declared with `:>` instead of a simple `:`.
This declares the `S` projection to be a coercion. A coercion is 
a "cast" function the system automatically inserts when it is needed.
In that case, the projection `S` has type `Ax → setoid`, and whenever
the expected type of a term is `setoid` while its type is `Ax`, the 
system inserts the coercion around it, to make the whole term well typed.

When formalizing an algebraic structure, declaring the carrier as a 
coercion is a common practice, since it allows to write statements like

    ∀G:Group.∀x:G.x * x^-1 = 1 

The quantification over `x` of type `G` is ill-typed, since `G` is a term
(of type `Group`) and thus not a type. Since the carrier projection 
`carr` is a coercion, that maps a `Group` into the type of 
its elements, the system automatically inserts `carr` around `G`, 
obtaining `…∀x: carr G.…`. 

Coercions are hidden by the system when it displays a term.
In this particular case, the coercion `S` allows to write (and read):

    ∀A:Ax.∀a:A.…

Since `A` is not a type, but it can be turned into a `setoid` by `S`
and a `setoid` can be turned into a type by its `carr` projection, the 
composed coercion `carr ∘ S` is silently inserted.

Implicit arguments
------------------

Something that is not still satisfactory, is that the dependent type
of `I` and `C` are abstracted over the Axiom set. To obtain the
precise type of a term, you can use the `ncheck` command as follows.

D*) 

(** ncheck I. *) (* shows: ∀A:Ax.A → Type[0] *)
(** ncheck C. *) (* shows: ∀A:Ax.∀a:A.A → I A a → Ω^A *)

(*D

One would like to write `I a` and not `I A a` under a context where
`A` is an axiom set and `a` has type `S A` (or thanks to the coercion
mechanism simply `A`). In Matita, a question mark represents an implicit
argument, i.e. a missing piece of information the system is asked to
infer. Matita performs Hindley-Milner-style type inference, thus writing
`I ? a` is enough: since the second argument of `I` is typed by the 
first one, the first (omitted) argument can be inferred just 
computing the type of `a` (that is `A`).

D*) 

(** ncheck (∀A:Ax.∀a:A.I ? a). *) (* shows: ∀A:Ax.∀a:A.I A a *)

(*D

This is still not completely satisfactory, since you have always to type 
`?`; to fix this minor issue we have to introduce the notational
support built in Matita.

Notation for I and C
--------------------

Matita is quipped with a quite complex notational support,
allowing the user to define and use mathematical notations 
([From Notation to Semantics: There and Back Again][1]). 

Since notations are usually ambiguous (e.g. the frequent overloading of 
symbols) Matita distinguishes between the term level, the 
content level, and the presentation level, allowing multiple 
mappings between the content and the term level. 

The mapping between the presentation level (i.e. what is typed on the 
keyboard and what is displayed in the sequent window) and the content
level is defined with the `notation` command. When followed by
`>`, it defines an input (only) notation.   

D*)

notation > "𝐈 term 90 a" non associative with precedence 70 for @{ 'I $a }.
notation > "𝐂 term 90 a term 90 i" non associative with precedence 70 for @{ 'C $a $i }.

(*D

The first notation defines the writing `𝐈 a` where `a` is a generic
term of precedence 90, the maximum one. This high precedence forces
parentheses around any term of a lower precedence. For example `𝐈 x`
would be accepted, since identifiers have precedence 90, but
`𝐈 f x` would be interpreted as `(𝐈 f) x`. In the latter case, parentheses
have to be put around `f x`, thus the accepted writing would be `𝐈 (f x)`.

To obtain the `𝐈` is enough to type `I` and then cycle between its
similar symbols with ALT-L. The same for `𝐂`. Notations cannot use
regular letters or the round parentheses, thus their variants (like the 
bold ones) have to be used.

The first notation associates `𝐈 a` with `'I $a` where `'I` is a 
new content element to which a term `$a` is passed.

Content elements have to be interpreted, and possibly multiple, 
incompatible, interpretations can be defined.

D*)

interpretation "I" 'I a = (I ? a).
interpretation "C" 'C a i = (C ? a i).

(*D

The `interpretation` command allows to define the mapping between
the content level and the terms level. Here we associate the `I` and
`C` projections of the Axiom set record, where the Axiom set is an implicit 
argument `?` to be inferred by the system.

Interpretation are bi-directional, thus when displaying a term like 
`C _ a i`, the system looks for a presentation for the content element
`'C a i`. 

D*)

notation < "𝐈  \sub( ❨a❩ )" non associative with precedence 70 for @{ 'I $a }.
notation < "𝐂 \sub( ❨a,\emsp i❩ )" non associative with precedence 70 for @{ 'C $a $i }.

(*D

For output purposes we can define more complex notations, for example
we can put bold parentheses around the arguments of `𝐈` and `𝐂`, decreasing
the size of the arguments and lowering their baseline (i.e. putting them
as subscript), separating them with a comma followed by a little space.

The first (technical) definition
--------------------------------

Before defining the cover relation as an inductive predicate, one
has to notice that the infinity rule uses, in its hypotheses, the 
cover relation between two subsets, while the inductive predicate 
we are going to define relates an element and a subset.

An option would be to unfold the definition of cover between subsets,
but we prefer to define the abstract notion of cover between subsets
(so that we can attach a (ambiguous) notation to it).

Anyway, to ease the understanding of the definition of the cover relation 
between subsets, we first define the inductive predicate unfolding the 
definition, and we later refine it with.

D*)

ninductive xcover (A : Ax) (U : Ω^A) : A → CProp[0] ≝ 
| xcreflexivity : ∀a:A. a ∈ U → xcover A U a
| xcinfinity    : ∀a:A.∀i:𝐈 a. (∀y.y ∈ 𝐂 a i → xcover A U y) → xcover A U a.

(*D

We defined the xcover (x will be removed in the final version of the 
definition) as an inductive predicate. The arity of the inductive
predicate has to be carefully analyzed:

>  (A : Ax) (U : Ω^A) : A → CProp[0]

The syntax separates with `:` abstractions that are fixed for every
constructor (introduction rule) and abstractions that can change. In that 
case the parameter `U` is abstracted once and for all in front of every 
constructor, and every occurrence of the inductive predicate is applied to
`U` in a consistent way. Arguments abstracted on the right of `:` are not
constant, for example the xcinfinity constructor introduces `a ◃ U`,
but under the assumption that (for every y) `y ◃ U`. In that rule, the left
had side of the predicate changes, thus it has to be abstracted (in the arity
of the inductive predicate) on the right of `:`.

D*)

(** ncheck xcreflexivity. *) (* shows: ∀A:Ax.∀U:Ω^A.∀a:A.a∈U → xcover A U a *)

(*D

We want now to abstract out `(∀y.y ∈ 𝐂 a i → xcover A U y)` and define
a notion `cover_set` to which a notation `𝐂 a i ◃ U` can be attached.

This notion has to be abstracted over the cover relation (whose
type is the arity of the inductive `xcover` predicate just defined).

Then it has to be abstracted over the arguments of that cover relation,
i.e. the axiom set and the set `U`, and the subset (in that case `𝐂 a i`)
sitting on the left hand side of `◃`. 

D*)

ndefinition cover_set : 
  ∀cover: ∀A:Ax.Ω^A → A → CProp[0]. ∀A:Ax.∀C,U:Ω^A. CProp[0] 
≝ 
  λcover.                           λA,    C,U.     ∀y.y ∈ C → cover A U y.

(*D

The `ndefinition` command takes a name, a type and body (of that type).
The type can be omitted, and in that case it is inferred by the system.
If the type is given, the system uses it to infer implicit arguments
of the body. In that case all types are left implicit in the body.

We now define the notation `a ◃ b`. Here the keywork `hvbox`
and `break` tell the system how to wrap text when it does not
fit the screen (they can be safely ignored for the scope of
this tutorial). We also add an interpretation for that notation, 
where the (abstracted) cover relation is implicit. The system
will not be able to infer it from the other arguments `C` and `U`
and will thus prompt the user for it. This is also why we named this 
interpretation `covers set temp`: we will later define another 
interpretation in which the cover relation is the one we are going to 
define.

D*)

notation "hvbox(a break ◃ b)" non associative with precedence 45
for @{ 'covers $a $b }.

interpretation "covers set temp" 'covers C U = (cover_set ?? C U).

(*D

The cover relation
------------------

We can now define the cover relation using the `◃` notation for 
the premise of infinity. 

D*)

ninductive cover (A : Ax) (U : Ω^A) : A → CProp[0] ≝ 
| creflexivity : ∀a. a ∈ U → cover A U a
| cinfinity    : ∀a. ∀i. 𝐂 a i ◃ U → cover A U a.
(** screenshot "cover". *) 
napply cover;
nqed.

(*D

Note that the system accepts the definition
but prompts the user for the relation the `cover_set` notion is
abstracted on.



The horizontal line separates the hypotheses from the conclusion.
The `napply cover` command tells the system that the relation
it is looking for is exactly our first context entry (i.e. the inductive
predicate we are defining, up to α-conversion); while the `nqed` command
ends a definition or proof.

We can now define the interpretation for the cover relation between an
element and a subset first, then between two subsets (but this time
we fix the relation `cover_set` is abstracted on).

D*)

interpretation "covers" 'covers a U = (cover ? U a).
interpretation "covers set" 'covers a U = (cover_set cover ? a U).

(*D

We will proceed similarly for the fish relation, but before going
on it is better to give a short introduction to the proof mode of Matita.
We define again the `cover_set` term, but this time we build
its body interactively. In the λ-calculus Matita is based on, CIC, proofs
and terms share the same syntax, and it is thus possible to use the
commands devoted to build proof term also to build regular definitions.
A tentative semantics for the proof mode commands (called tactics)
in terms of sequent calculus rules are given in the
<a href="#appendix">appendix</a>.

D*)

ndefinition xcover_set : 
  ∀c: ∀A:Ax.Ω^A → A → CProp[0]. ∀A:Ax.∀C,U:Ω^A. CProp[0]. 
                         (** screenshot "xcover-set-1". *)
#cover; #A; #C; #U;      (** screenshot "xcover-set-2". *) 
napply (∀y:A.y ∈ C → ?); (** screenshot "xcover-set-3". *)
napply cover;            (** screenshot "xcover-set-4". *)
##[ napply A;
##| napply U;
##| napply y;
##]
nqed.

(*D[xcover-set-1]
The system asks for a proof of the full statement, in an empty context.

The `#` command is the ∀-introduction rule, it gives a name to an 
assumption putting it in the context, and generates a λ-abstraction
in the proof term.

D[xcover-set-2]
We have now to provide a proposition, and we exhibit it. We left
a part of it implicit; since the system cannot infer it it will
ask for it later. 
Note that the type of `∀y:A.y ∈ C → ?` is a proposition
whenever `?` is a proposition.

D[xcover-set-3]
The proposition we want to provide is an application of the
cover relation we have abstracted in the context. The command
`napply`, if the given term has not the expected type (in that
case it is a product versus a proposition) it applies it to as many 
implicit arguments as necessary (in that case `? ? ?`).

D[xcover-set-4]
The system will now ask in turn the three implicit arguments 
passed to cover. The syntax `##[` allows to start a branching
to tackle every sub proof individually, otherwise every command
is applied to every subproof. The command `##|` switches to the next
subproof and `##]` ends the branching.  
D*)

(*D

The fish relation
-----------------

The definition of fish works exactly the same way as for cover, except 
that it is defined as a coinductive proposition.
D*)

ndefinition fish_set ≝ λf:∀A:Ax.Ω^A → A → CProp[0].
 λA,U,V.
  ∃a.a ∈ V ∧ f A U a.

(* a \ltimes b *)
notation "hvbox(a break ⋉ b)" non associative with precedence 45
for @{ 'fish $a $b }. 

interpretation "fish set temp" 'fish A U = (fish_set ?? U A).

ncoinductive fish (A : Ax) (F : Ω^A) : A → CProp[0] ≝ 
| cfish : ∀a. a ∈ F → (∀i:𝐈 a .𝐂  a i ⋉ F) → fish A F a.
napply fish;
nqed.

interpretation "fish set" 'fish A U = (fish_set fish ? U A).
interpretation "fish" 'fish a U = (fish ? U a).

(*D

Introduction rule for fish
---------------------------

Matita is able to generate elimination rules for inductive types,
but not introduction rules for the coinductive case. 

D*)

(** ncheck cover_rect_CProp0. *) 

(*D

We thus have to define the introduction rule for fish by co-recursion.
Here we again use the proof mode of Matita to exhibit the body of the
corecursive function.

D*)

nlet corec fish_rec (A:Ax) (U: Ω^A)
 (P: Ω^A) (H1: P ⊆ U)
  (H2: ∀a:A. a ∈ P → ∀j: 𝐈 a. 𝐂 a j ≬ P): ∀a:A. ∀p: a ∈ P. a ⋉ U ≝ ?.
                                       (** screenshot "def-fish-rec-1".   *)
#a; #a_in_P; napply cfish;                  (** screenshot "def-fish-rec-2".   *)
##[ nchange in H1 with (∀b.b∈P → b∈U); (** screenshot "def-fish-rec-2-1". *) 
    napply H1;                         (** screenshot "def-fish-rec-3".   *) 
    nassumption;
##| #i; ncases (H2 a a_in_P i);             (** screenshot "def-fish-rec-5".   *) 
    #x; *; #xC; #xP;                   (** screenshot "def-fish-rec-5-1". *) 
    @;                                 (** screenshot "def-fish-rec-6".   *)
    ##[ napply x
    ##| @;                             (** screenshot "def-fish-rec-7".   *)
        ##[ napply xC; 
        ##| napply (fish_rec ? U P);   (** screenshot "def-fish-rec-9".   *)
            nassumption;
        ##]
    ##]
##]
nqed.

(*D
D[def-fish-rec-1]
Note the first item of the context, it is the corecursive function we are 
defining. This item allows to perform the recursive call, but we will be
allowed to do such call only after having generated a constructor of
the fish coinductive type.

We introduce `a` and `p`, and then return the fish constructor `cfish`.
Since the constructor accepts two arguments, the system asks for them.

D[def-fish-rec-2]
The first one is a proof that `a ∈ U`. This can be proved using `H1` and `p`.
With the `nchange` tactic we change `H1` into an equivalent form (this step
can be skipped, since the system would be able to unfold the definition
of inclusion by itself)

D[def-fish-rec-2-1]
It is now clear that `H1` can be applied. Again `napply` adds two 
implicit arguments to `H1 ? ?`, obtaining a proof of `? ∈ U` given a proof
that `? ∈ P`. Thanks to unification, the system understands that `?` is actually
`a`, and it asks a proof that `a ∈ P`.

D[def-fish-rec-3]
The `nassumption` tactic looks for the required proof in the context, and in
that cases finds it in the last context position. 

We move now to the second branch of the proof, corresponding to the second
argument of the `cfish` constructor.

We introduce `i` and then we destruct `H2 a p i`, that being a proof
of an overlap predicate, give as an element and a proof that it is 
both in `𝐂 a i` and `P`.

D[def-fish-rec-5]
We then introduce `x`, break the conjunction (the `*;` command is the
equivalent of `ncases` but operates on the first hypothesis that can
be introduced). We then introduce the two sides of the conjunction.

D[def-fish-rec-5-1]
The goal is now the existence of a point in `𝐂 a i` fished by `U`.
We thus need to use the introduction rule for the existential quantifier.
In CIC it is a defined notion, that is an inductive type with just
one constructor (one introduction rule) holding the witness and the proof
that the witness satisfies a proposition.

> ncheck Ex.

Instead of trying to remember the name of the constructor, that should
be used as the argument of `napply`, we can ask the system to find by
itself the constructor name and apply it with the `@` tactic. 
Note that some inductive predicates, like the disjunction, have multiple
introduction rules, and thus `@` can be followed by a number identifying
the constructor.

D[def-fish-rec-6]
After choosing `x` as the witness, we have to prove a conjunction,
and we again apply the introduction rule for the inductively defined
predicate `∧`.

D[def-fish-rec-7]
The left hand side of the conjunction is trivial to prove, since it 
is already in the context. The right hand side needs to perform
the co-recursive call.

D[def-fish-rec-9]
The co-recursive call needs some arguments, but all of them are
in the context. Instead of explicitly mention them, we use the
`nassumption` tactic, that simply tries to apply every context item.

D*)

(*D

Subset of covered/fished points
-------------------------------

We now have to define the subset of `S` of points covered by `U`.
We also define a prefix notation for it. Remember that the precedence
of the prefix form of a symbol has to be higher than the precedence 
of its infix form.

D*)

ndefinition coverage : ∀A:Ax.∀U:Ω^A.Ω^A ≝ λA,U.{ a | a ◃ U }.

notation "◃U" non associative with precedence 55 for @{ 'coverage $U }.

interpretation "coverage cover" 'coverage U = (coverage ? U).

(*D

Here we define the equation characterizing the cover relation. 
Even if it is not part of the paper, we proved that `◃(U)` is 
the minimum solution for
such equation, the interested reader should be able to reply the proof
with Matita.

D*)

ndefinition cover_equation : ∀A:Ax.∀U,X:Ω^A.CProp[0] ≝  λA,U,X. 
  ∀a.a ∈ X ↔ (a ∈ U ∨ ∃i:𝐈 a.∀y.y ∈ 𝐂 a i → y ∈ X).  

ntheorem coverage_cover_equation : ∀A,U. cover_equation A U (◃U).
#A; #U; #a; @; #H;
##[ nelim H; #b; 
    ##[ #bU; @1; nassumption;
    ##| #i; #CaiU; #IH; @2; @ i; #c; #cCbi; ncases (IH ? cCbi);
        ##[ #E; @; napply E;
        ##| #_; napply CaiU; nassumption; ##] ##]
##| ncases H; ##[ #E; @; nassumption]
    *; #j; #Hj; @2 j; #w; #wC; napply Hj; nassumption;
##]
nqed. 

ntheorem coverage_min_cover_equation : 
  ∀A,U,W. cover_equation A U W → ◃U ⊆ W.
#A; #U; #W; #H; #a; #aU; nelim aU; #b;
##[ #bU; ncases (H b); #_; #H1; napply H1; @1; nassumption;
##| #i; #CbiU; #IH; ncases (H b); #_; #H1; napply H1; @2; @i; napply IH;
##]
nqed.

(*D

We similarly define the subset of points "fished" by `F`, the 
equation characterizing `⋉(F)` and prove that fish is
the biggest solution for such equation.

D*) 

notation "⋉F" non associative with precedence 55
for @{ 'fished $F }.

ndefinition fished : ∀A:Ax.∀F:Ω^A.Ω^A ≝ λA,F.{ a | a ⋉ F }.

interpretation "fished fish" 'fished F = (fished ? F).

ndefinition fish_equation : ∀A:Ax.∀F,X:Ω^A.CProp[0] ≝ λA,F,X.
  ∀a. a ∈ X ↔ a ∈ F ∧ ∀i:𝐈 a.∃y.y ∈ 𝐂 a i ∧ y ∈ X. 
  
ntheorem fished_fish_equation : ∀A,F. fish_equation A F (⋉F).
#A; #F; #a; @; (* *; non genera outtype che lega a *) #H; ncases H;
##[ #b; #bF; #H2; @ bF; #i; ncases (H2 i); #c; *; #cC; #cF; @c; @ cC;
    napply cF;  
##| #aF; #H1; @ aF; napply H1;
##]
nqed.

ntheorem fished_max_fish_equation : ∀A,F,G. fish_equation A F G → G ⊆ ⋉F.
#A; #F; #G; #H; #a; #aG; napply (fish_rec … aG);
#b; ncases (H b); #H1; #_; #bG; ncases (H1 bG); #E1; #E2; nassumption; 
nqed. 

(*D

Part 2, the new set of axioms
-----------------------------

Since the name of defined objects (record included) has to be unique
within the same file, we prefix every field name
in the new definition of the axiom set with `n`.

D*)

nrecord nAx : Type[1] ≝ { 
  nS:> Type[0]; 
  nI: nS → Type[0];
  nD: ∀a:nS. nI a → Type[0];
  nd: ∀a:nS. ∀i:nI a. nD a i → nS
}.

(*D

We again define a notation for the projections, making the 
projected record an implicit argument. Note that, since we already have
a notation for `𝐈`, we just add another interpretation for it. The
system, looking at the argument of `𝐈`, will be able to choose
the correct interpretation. 

D*)

notation "𝐃 \sub ( ❨a,\emsp i❩ )" non associative with precedence 70 for @{ 'D $a $i }.
notation "𝐝 \sub ( ❨a,\emsp i,\emsp j❩ )" non associative with precedence 70 for @{ 'd $a $i $j}.

notation > "𝐃 term 90 a term 90 i" non associative with precedence 70 for @{ 'D $a $i }.
notation > "𝐝 term 90 a term 90 i term 90 j" non associative with precedence 70 for @{ 'd $a $i $j}.

interpretation "D" 'D a i = (nD ? a i).
interpretation "d" 'd a i j = (nd ? a i j).
interpretation "new I" 'I a = (nI ? a).

(*D

The first result the paper presents to motivate the new formulation
of the axiom set is the possibility to define and old axiom set
starting from a new one and vice versa. The key definition for
such construction is the image of d(a,i).
The paper defines the image as

> Im[d(a,i)] = { d(a,i,j) | j : D(a,i) }

but this not so formal notation poses some problems. The image is
often used as the left hand side of the ⊆ predicate

> Im[d(a,i)] ⊆ V

Of course this writing is interpreted by the authors as follows 

> ∀j:D(a,i). d(a,i,j) ∈ V

If we need to use the image to define `𝐂 ` (a subset of `S`) we are obliged to
form a subset, i.e. to place a single variable `{ here | … }` of type `S`.

> Im[d(a,i)] = { y | ∃j:D(a,i). y = d(a,i,j) }

This poses no theoretical problems, since `S` is a setoid and thus equipped
with an equality.

Unless we define two different images, one for stating that the image is ⊆ of
something and another one to define `𝐂`, we end up using always the latter.
Thus the statement `Im[d(a,i)] ⊆ V` unfolds to

> ∀x:S. ( ∃j.x = d(a,i,j) ) → x ∈ V

That, up to rewriting with the equation defining `x`, is what we mean. 
The technical problem arises later, when `V` will be a complex 
construction that has to be proved extensional 
(i.e. ∀x,y. x = y → x ∈ V → y ∈ V).

D*)

include "logic/equality.ma".

ndefinition image ≝ λA:nAx.λa:A.λi. { x | ∃j:𝐃 a i. x = 𝐝 a i j }.

notation > "𝐈𝐦  [𝐝 term 90 a term 90 i]" non associative with precedence 70 for @{ 'Im $a $i }.
notation < "𝐈𝐦  [𝐝 \sub ( ❨a,\emsp i❩ )]" non associative with precedence 70 for @{ 'Im $a $i }.

interpretation "image" 'Im a i = (image ? a i).

(*D

Thanks to our definition of image, we can define a function mapping a
new axiom set to an old one and vice versa. Note that in the second
definition, when we give the `𝐝` component, the projection of the 
Σ-type is inlined (constructed on the fly by `*;`) 
while in the paper it was named `fst`.

D*)

ndefinition Ax_of_nAx : nAx → Ax.
#A; @ A (nI ?); #a; #i; napply (𝐈𝐦 [𝐝 a i]);
nqed.

ndefinition nAx_of_Ax : Ax → nAx.
#A; @ A (I ?);
##[ #a; #i; napply (Σx:A.x ∈ 𝐂 a i);
##| #a; #i; *; #x; #_; napply x;
##]
nqed.

nlemma Ax_nAx_equiv : 
  ∀A:Ax. ∀a,i. C (Ax_of_nAx (nAx_of_Ax A)) a i ⊆ C A a i ∧
               C A a i ⊆ C (Ax_of_nAx (nAx_of_Ax A)) a i.               
#A; #a; #i; @; #b; #H;
##[  ncases A in a i b H; #S; #I; #C; #a; #i; #b; #H; 
     nwhd in H; ncases H; #x; #E; nrewrite > E;
     ncases x in E; #b; #Hb; #_; nnormalize; nassumption;
##|  ncases A in a i b H; #S; #I; #C; #a; #i; #b; #H; @;
     ##[ @ b; nassumption;
     ##| nnormalize; @; ##]
##]
nqed.

(*D

We then define the inductive type of ordinals, parametrized over an axiom
set. We also attach some notations to the constructors.

D*)

ninductive Ord (A : nAx) : Type[0] ≝ 
 | oO : Ord A
 | oS : Ord A → Ord A
 | oL : ∀a:A.∀i.∀f:𝐃 a i → Ord A. Ord A.

notation "0" non associative with precedence 90 for @{ 'oO }.
notation "x+1" non associative with precedence 50 for @{'oS $x }.
notation "Λ term 90 f" non associative with precedence 50 for @{ 'oL $f }.

interpretation "ordinals Zero" 'oO = (oO ?).
interpretation "ordinals Succ" 'oS x = (oS ? x).
interpretation "ordinals Lambda" 'oL f = (oL ? ? ? f).

(*D

The definition of `U⎽x` is by recursion over the ordinal `x`. 
We thus define a recursive function using the `nlet rec` command. 
The `on x` directive tells
the system on which argument the function is (structurally) recursive.

In the `oS` case we use a local definition to name the recursive call
since it is used twice.

Note that Matita does not support notation in the left hand side
of a pattern match, and thus the names of the constructors have to 
be spelled out verbatim.

D*)

nlet rec famU (A : nAx) (U : Ω^A) (x : Ord A) on x : Ω^A ≝ 
  match x with
  [ oO ⇒ U
  | oS y ⇒ let U_n ≝ famU A U y in U_n ∪ { x | ∃i.𝐈𝐦[𝐝 x i] ⊆ U_n} 
  | oL a i f ⇒ { x | ∃j.x ∈ famU A U (f j) } ].
  
notation < "term 90 U \sub (term 90 x)" non associative with precedence 50 for @{ 'famU $U $x }.
notation > "U ⎽ term 90 x" non associative with precedence 50 for @{ 'famU $U $x }.

interpretation "famU" 'famU U x = (famU ? U x).

(*D

We attach as the input notation for U_x the similar `U⎽x` where underscore,
that is a character valid for identifier names, has been replaced by `⎽` that is
not. The symbol `⎽` can act as a separator, and can be typed as an alternative
for `_` (i.e. pressing ALT-L after `_`). 

The notion ◃(U) has to be defined as the subset of elements `y`  
belonging to `U⎽x` for some `x`. Moreover, we have to define the notion
of cover between sets again, since the one defined at the beginning
of the tutorial works only for the old axiom set.

D*)
  
ndefinition ord_coverage : ∀A:nAx.∀U:Ω^A.Ω^A ≝ 
  λA,U.{ y | ∃x:Ord A. y ∈ famU ? U x }.

ndefinition ord_cover_set ≝ λc:∀A:nAx.Ω^A → Ω^A.λA,C,U.
  ∀y.y ∈ C → y ∈ c A U.

interpretation "coverage new cover" 'coverage U = (ord_coverage ? U).
interpretation "new covers set" 'covers a U = (ord_cover_set ord_coverage ? a U).
interpretation "new covers" 'covers a U = (mem ? (ord_coverage ? U) a).

(*D

Before proving that this cover relation validates the reflexivity and infinity
rules, we prove this little technical lemma that is used in the proof for the 
infinity rule.

D*)

nlemma ord_subset: ∀A:nAx.∀a:A.∀i,f,U.∀j:𝐃 a i. U⎽(f j) ⊆ U⎽(Λ f).
#A; #a; #i; #f; #U; #j; #b; #bUf; @ j; nassumption;
nqed.

(*D

The proof of infinity uses the following form of the Axiom of Choice,
that cannot be proved inside Matita, since the existential quantifier
lives in the sort of predicative propositions while the sigma in the conclusion
lives in the sort of data types, and thus the former cannot be eliminated
to provide the witness for the second.

D*)

nlemma AC_fake : ∀A,a,i,U.
  (∀j:𝐃 a i.Σx:Ord A.𝐝 a i j ∈ U⎽x) → (Σf.∀j:𝐃 a i.𝐝 a i j ∈ U⎽(f j)).
#A; #a; #i; #U; #H; @;
##[ #j; ncases (H j); #x; #_; napply x;
##| #j; ncases (H j); #x; #Hx; napply Hx; ##]
nqed. 

naxiom AC : ∀A,a,i,U.
  (∀j:𝐃 a i.∃x:Ord A.𝐝 a i j ∈ U⎽x) → (Σf.∀j:𝐃 a i.𝐝 a i j ∈ U⎽(f j)).

(*D

In the proof of infinity, we have to rewrite under the ∈ predicate.
It is clearly possible to show that `U⎽x` is an extensional set:

> a = b → a ∈ U⎽x → b ∈ U⎽x

Anyway this proof is a non trivial induction over x, that requires `𝐈` and `𝐃` to be
declared as morphisms. This poses no problem, but goes out of the scope of the 
tutorial, since dependent morphisms are hard to manipulate, and we thus assume it.

D*)

naxiom U_x_is_ext: ∀A:nAx.∀a,b:A.∀x.∀U. a = b → b ∈ U⎽x → a ∈ U⎽x.

(*D

The reflexivity proof is trivial, it is enough to provide the ordinal `0`
as a witness, then `◃(U)` reduces to `U` by definition, 
hence the conclusion. Note that `0` is between `(` and `)` to
make it clear that it is a term (an ordinal) and not the number
of the constructor we want to apply (that is the first and only one
of the existential inductive type).

D*)
ntheorem new_coverage_reflexive: ∀A:nAx.∀U:Ω^A.∀a. a ∈ U → a ◃ U.
#A; #U; #a; #H; @ (0); napply H;
nqed.

(*D

We now proceed with the proof of the infinity rule.

D*)


alias symbol "exists" (instance 1) = "exists".
alias symbol "covers" = "new covers set".
alias symbol "covers" = "new covers".
alias symbol "covers" = "new covers set".
alias symbol "covers" = "new covers".
alias symbol "covers" = "new covers set".
ntheorem new_coverage_infinity:
  ∀A:nAx.∀U:Ω^A.∀a:A. (∃i:𝐈 a. 𝐈𝐦[𝐝 a i] ◃ U) → a ◃ U.
#A; #U; #a;                                   (** screenshot "n-cov-inf-1". *)  
*; #i; #H; nnormalize in H;                   (** screenshot "n-cov-inf-2". *)
ncut (∀y:𝐃 a i.∃x:Ord A.𝐝 a i y ∈ U⎽x); ##[    (** screenshot "n-cov-inf-3". *)
  #z; napply H; @ z; @; ##] #H';       (** screenshot "n-cov-inf-4". *)
ncases (AC … H'); #f; #Hf;                    (** screenshot "n-cov-inf-5". *)
ncut (∀j.𝐝 a i j ∈ U⎽(Λ f));
  ##[ #j; napply (ord_subset … f … (Hf j));##] #Hf';(** screenshot "n-cov-inf-6". *)
@ (Λ f+1);                                    (** screenshot "n-cov-inf-7". *)
@2;                                           (** screenshot "n-cov-inf-8". *) 
@i; #x; *; #d; #Hd;                           (** screenshot "n-cov-inf-9". *)  
nrewrite > Hd; napply Hf';
nqed.

(*D
D[n-cov-inf-1]
We eliminate the existential, obtaining an `i` and a proof that the 
image of `𝐝 a i` is covered by U. The `nnormalize` tactic computes the normal
form of `H`, thus expands the definition of cover between sets.

D[n-cov-inf-2]
When the paper proof considers `H`, it implicitly substitutes assumed 
equation defining `y` in its conclusion. 
In Matita this step is not completely trivial.
We thus assert (`ncut`) the nicer form of `H` and prove it.

D[n-cov-inf-3]
After introducing `z`, `H` can be applied (choosing `𝐝 a i z` as `y`). 
What is the left to prove is that `∃j: 𝐃 a j. 𝐝 a i z = 𝐝 a i j`, that 
becomes trivial if `j` is chosen to be `z`. 

D[n-cov-inf-4]
Under `H'` the axiom of choice `AC` can be eliminated, obtaining the `f` and 
its property. Note that the axiom `AC` was abstracted over `A,a,i,U` before
assuming `(∀j:𝐃 a i.∃x:Ord A.𝐝 a i j ∈ U⎽x)`. Thus the term that can be eliminated
is `AC ???? H'` where the system is able to infer every `?`. Matita provides
a facility to specify a number of `?` in a compact way, i.e. `…`. The system
expand `…` first to zero, then one, then two, three and finally four question 
marks, "guessing" how may of them are needed. 

D[n-cov-inf-5]
The paper proof does now a forward reasoning step, deriving (by the ord_subset 
lemma we proved above) `Hf'` i.e. 𝐝 a i j ∈ U⎽(Λf).

D[n-cov-inf-6]
To prove that `a◃U` we have to exhibit the ordinal x such that `a ∈ U⎽x`.

D[n-cov-inf-7]
The definition of `U⎽(…+1)` expands to the union of two sets, and proving
that `a ∈ X ∪ Y` is, by definition, equivalent to prove that `a` is in `X` or `Y`. 
Applying the second constructor `@2;` of the disjunction, 
we are left to prove that `a` belongs to the right hand side of the union.

D[n-cov-inf-8]
We thus provide `i` as the witness of the existential, introduce the 
element being in the image and we are
left to prove that it belongs to `U⎽(Λf)`. In the meanwhile, since belonging 
to the image means that there exists an object in the domain …, we eliminate the
existential, obtaining `d` (of type `𝐃 a i`) and the equation defining `x`.  

D[n-cov-inf-9]
We just need to use the equational definition of `x` to obtain a conclusion
that can be proved with `Hf'`. We assumed that `U⎽x` is extensional for
every `x`, thus we are allowed to use `Hd` and close the proof.

D*)

(*D

The next proof is that ◃(U) is minimal. The hardest part of the proof
is to prepare the goal for the induction. The desiderata is to prove
`U⎽o ⊆ V` by induction on `o`, but the conclusion of the lemma is,
unfolding all definitions:

> ∀x. x ∈ { y | ∃o:Ord A.y ∈ U⎽o } → x ∈ V

D*)

nlemma new_coverage_min :  
  ∀A:nAx.∀U:Ω^A.∀V.U ⊆ V → (∀a:A.∀i.𝐈𝐦[𝐝 a i] ⊆ V → a ∈ V) → ◃U ⊆ V.
#A; #U; #V; #HUV; #Im;#b;                       (** screenshot "n-cov-min-2". *)
*; #o;                                          (** screenshot "n-cov-min-3". *)
ngeneralize in match b; nchange with (U⎽o ⊆ V); (** screenshot "n-cov-min-4". *)
nelim o;                                        (** screenshot "n-cov-min-5". *) 
##[ napply HUV; 
##| #p; #IH; napply subseteq_union_l; ##[ nassumption; ##]
    #x; *; #i; #H; napply (Im ? i); napply (subseteq_trans … IH); napply H;
##| #a; #i; #f; #IH; #x; *; #d; napply IH; ##]
nqed.

(*D
D[n-cov-min-2]
After all the introductions, event the element hidden in the ⊆ definition,
we have to eliminate the existential quantifier, obtaining the ordinal `o`

D[n-cov-min-3]
What is left is almost right, but the element `b` is already in the
context. We thus generalize every occurrence of `b` in 
the current goal, obtaining `∀c.c ∈ U⎽o → c ∈ V` that is `U⎽o ⊆ V`.

D[n-cov-min-4]
We then proceed by induction on `o` obtaining the following goals

D[n-cov-min-5]
All of them can be proved using simple set theoretic arguments,
the induction hypothesis and the assumption `Im`.

D*)


(*D

The notion `F⎽x` is again defined by recursion over the ordinal `x`.

D*)

nlet rec famF (A: nAx) (F : Ω^A) (x : Ord A) on x : Ω^A ≝ 
  match x with
  [ oO ⇒ F
  | oS o ⇒ let F_o ≝ famF A F o in F_o ∩ { x | ∀i:𝐈 x.∃j:𝐃 x i.𝐝 x i j ∈ F_o } 
  | oL a i f ⇒ { x | ∀j:𝐃 a i.x ∈ famF A F (f j) }
  ].

interpretation "famF" 'famU U x = (famF ? U x).

ndefinition ord_fished : ∀A:nAx.∀F:Ω^A.Ω^A ≝ λA,F.{ y | ∀x:Ord A. y ∈ F⎽x }.

interpretation "fished new fish" 'fished U = (ord_fished ? U).
interpretation "new fish" 'fish a U = (mem ? (ord_fished ? U) a).

(*D

The proof of compatibility uses this little result, that we 
proved outside the main proof. 

D*)
nlemma co_ord_subset: ∀A:nAx.∀F:Ω^A.∀a,i.∀f:𝐃 a i → Ord A.∀j. F⎽(Λ f) ⊆ F⎽(f j).
#A; #F; #a; #i; #f; #j; #x; #H; napply H;
nqed.

(*D

We assume the dual of the axiom of choice, as in the paper proof.

D*)
naxiom AC_dual: ∀A:nAx.∀a:A.∀i,F. 
 (∀f:𝐃 a i → Ord A.∃x:𝐃 a i.𝐝 a i x ∈ F⎽(f x))
    → ∃j:𝐃 a i.∀x:Ord A.𝐝 a i j ∈ F⎽x.

(*D

Proving the anti-reflexivity property is simple, since the
assumption `a ⋉ F` states that for every ordinal `x` (and thus also 0)
`a ∈ F⎽x`. If `x` is choose to be `0`, we obtain the thesis.

D*)
ntheorem new_fish_antirefl: ∀A:nAx.∀F:Ω^A.∀a. a ⋉ F → a ∈ F.
#A; #F; #a; #H; nlapply (H 0); #aFo; napply aFo;
nqed.

(*D

We now prove the compatibility property for the new fish relation.

D*)
ntheorem new_fish_compatible: 
 ∀A:nAx.∀F:Ω^A.∀a. a ⋉ F → ∀i:𝐈 a.∃j:𝐃 a i.𝐝 a i j ⋉ F.
#A; #F; #a; #aF; #i; nnormalize;               (** screenshot "n-f-compat-1". *)
napply AC_dual; #f;                            (** screenshot "n-f-compat-2". *)
nlapply (aF (Λf+1)); #aLf;                     (** screenshot "n-f-compat-3". *)
nchange in aLf with 
  (a ∈ F⎽(Λ f) ∧ ∀i:𝐈 a.∃j:𝐃 a i.𝐝 a i j ∈ F⎽(Λ f)); (** screenshot "n-f-compat-4". *)
ncases aLf; #_; #H; nlapply (H i);                 (** screenshot "n-f-compat-5". *)
*; #j; #Hj; @j;                                    (** screenshot "n-f-compat-6". *)
napply (co_ord_subset … Hj);
nqed.

(*D
D[n-f-compat-1]
After reducing to normal form the goal, we observe it is exactly the conclusion of
the dual axiom of choice we just assumed. We thus apply it ad introduce the 
fcuntion `f`.

D[n-f-compat-2]
The hypothesis `aF` states that `a⋉F⎽x` for every `x`, and we choose `Λf+1`.

D[n-f-compat-3]
Since F_(Λf+1) is defined by recursion and we actually have a concrete input
`Λf+1` for that recursive function, it can be computed. 
Anyway, using the `nnormalize`
tactic would reduce too much (both the `+1` and the `Λf` steps would be performed);
we thus explicitly give a convertible type for that hypothesis, corresponding 
the computation of the `+1` step, plus the unfolding the definition of
the intersection.

D[n-f-compat-4]
We are interested in the right hand side of `aLf`, an in particular to
its intance where the generic index in `𝐈 a` is `i`.

D[n-f-compat-5]
We then eliminate the existential, obtaining `j` and its property `Hj`. We provide
the same witness 

D[n-f-compat-6]
What is left to prove is exactly the `co_ord_subset` lemma we factored out
of the main proof.

D*)

(*D

The proof that `⋉(F)` is maximal is exactly the dual one of the
minimality of `◃(U)`. Thus the main problem is to obtain `G ⊆ F⎽o`
before doing the induction over `o`.

Note that `G` is assumed to be of type `𝛀^A`, that means an extensional
subset of `S`, while `Ω^A` means just a subset (note that the former is bold). 

D*)
ntheorem max_new_fished: 
  ∀A:nAx.∀G:Ω^A.∀F:Ω^A.G ⊆ F → (∀a.a ∈ G → ∀i.𝐈𝐦[𝐝 a i] ≬ G) → G ⊆ ⋉F.
#A; #G; #F; #GF; #H; #b; #HbG; #o; 
ngeneralize in match HbG; ngeneralize in match b;
nchange with (G ⊆ F⎽o);
nelim o;
##[ napply GF;
##| #p; #IH; napply (subseteq_intersection_r … IH);
    #x; #Hx; #i; ncases (H … Hx i); #c; *; *; #d; #Ed; #cG;
    @d; napply IH;                                 (** screenshot "n-f-max-1". *)
    nrewrite < Ed; napply cG;    
##| #a; #i; #f; #Hf; nchange with (G ⊆ { y | ∀x. y ∈ F⎽(f x) }); 
    #b; #Hb; #d; napply (Hf d); napply Hb;
##]
nqed.

(*D
D[n-f-max-1]
Here the situation looks really similar to the one of the dual proof where 
we had to apply the assumption `U_x_is_ext`, but here the set is just `G`
not `F_x`. Since we assumed `G` to be extensional we can 
exploit the facilities
Matita provides to perform rewriting in the general setting of setoids.

The `.` notation simply triggers the mechanism, while the given argument has to
mimic the context under which the rewriting has to happen. In that case
we want to rewrite the left hand side of the binary morphism `∈`. 
The infix notation
to represent the context of a binary morphism is `‡`. The right hand side 
has to be left untouched, and the identity rewriting step is represented with 
`#` (actually a reflexivity proof for the subterm identified by the context). 

We want to rewrite the left hand side using `Ed` right-to-left (the default
is left-to-right). We thus write `Ed^-1`, that is a proof that `𝐝 x i d = c`. 

The complete command is `napply (. Ed^-1‡#)` that has to be read like:

> perform some rewritings under a binary morphism, 
> on the right do nothing, 
> on the left rewrite with Ed right-to-left.

After the rewriting step the goal is exactly the `cG` assumption.

D*)


(*D
<div id="appendix" class="anchor"></div>
Appendix: tactics explanation
-----------------------------

In this appendix we try to give a description of tactics
in terms of sequent calculus rules annotated with proofs.
The `:` separator has to be read as _is a proof of_, in the spirit
of the Curry-Howard isomorphism.

                  Γ ⊢  f  :  A_1 → … → A_n → B     Γ ⊢ ?_i  :  A_i 
    napply f;    ⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼
                           Γ ⊢ (f ?_1 … ?_n )  :  B
 
                   Γ ⊢  ?  :  F → B       Γ ⊢ f  :  F 
    nlapply f;    ⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼
                             Γ ⊢ (? f)  :  B


                 Γ; x : T  ⊢ ?  :  P(x) 
    #x;      ⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼
                Γ ⊢ λx:T.?  :  ∀x:T.P(x)

                       
                       Γ ⊢ ?_i  :  args_i → P(k_i args_i)          
    ncases x;   ⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼
                Γ ⊢ match x with [ k1 args1 ⇒ ?_1 | … | kn argsn ⇒ ?_n ]  :  P(x)                    


                      Γ ⊢ ?i  :  ∀t. P(t) → P(k_i … t …)          
    nelim x;   ⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼
                   Γ ⊢ (T_rect_CProp0 ?_1 … ?_n)  :  P(x)                    

Where `T_rect_CProp0` is the induction principle for the 
inductive type `T`.


                          Γ ⊢ ?  :  Q     Q ≡ P          
    nchange with Q;   ⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼
                          Γ ⊢ ?  :  P                    

Where the equivalence relation between types `≡` keeps into account
β-reduction, δ-reduction (definition unfolding), ζ-reduction (local
definition unfolding), ι-reduction (pattern matching simplification),
μ-reduction (recursive function computation) and ν-reduction (co-fixpoint
computation).


                               Γ; H : Q; Δ ⊢ ?  :  G     Q ≡ P          
    nchange in H with Q; ⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼
                               Γ; H : P; Δ ⊢ ?  :  G                    


                               Γ; H : Q; Δ ⊢ ?  :  G     P →* Q           
    nnormalize in H; ⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼
                               Γ; H : P; Δ ⊢ ?  :  G                    

Where `Q` is the normal form of `P` considering βδζιμν-reduction steps.


                       Γ ⊢ ?  :  Q     P →* Q          
    nnormalize; ⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼
                       Γ ⊢ ?  :  P                    


                    Γ ⊢ ?_2  :  T → G    Γ ⊢ ?_1  :  T
    ncut T;   ⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼
                               Γ ⊢ (?_2 ?_1)  :  G                    


                                Γ ⊢ ?  :  ∀x.P(x)
    ngeneralize in match t; ⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼⎼
                                Γ ⊢ (? t)  :  P(t)
                                
D*)


(*D

<date>
Last updated: $Date$
</date>

[1]: http://upsilon.cc/~zack/research/publications/notation.pdf 
[2]: http://matita.cs.unibo.it
[3]: http://www.cs.unibo.it/~tassi/smallcc.pdf
[4]: http://www.inria.fr/rrrt/rr-0530.html

D*)