X-Git-Url: http://matita.cs.unibo.it/gitweb/?a=blobdiff_plain;f=weblib%2Ftutorial%2Fchapter3.ma;h=c6cb5b8cd8e4c9ac58b3bbaf181789a6ab067a04;hb=647b419e96770d90a82d7a9e5e8843566a9f93ee;hp=f822ce6f7d506cbb9a9a7f1f67673c2d377ab33e;hpb=1309af9ce5241646b925a37206c2798cf846dced;p=helm.git

diff --git a/weblib/tutorial/chapter3.ma b/weblib/tutorial/chapter3.ma
index f822ce6f7..c6cb5b8cd 100644
--- a/weblib/tutorial/chapter3.ma
+++ b/weblib/tutorial/chapter3.ma
@@ -1,11 +1,41 @@
-
+(*
+h1 class="section"Polymorphism and Higher Order/h1
+*)
 include "tutorial/chapter2.ma".
 include "basics/bool.ma".
 
-inductive list (A:Type[0]) : Type[0] :=
+(* Matita supports polymorphic data types. The most typical case are polymorphic
+lists, parametric in the type of their elements: *)
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="list"inductive list (A:Type[0]) : Type[0] ≝
   | nil: list A
   | cons: A -> list A -> list A.
 
+(* The type notation list A is the type of all lists with elements of type A: 
+it is defined by two constructors: a polymorphic empty list (nil A) and a cons 
+operation, adding a new head element of type A to a previous list. For instance, 
+(list nat) and and (list bool) are lists of natural numbers and booleans, 
+respectively. But we can also form more complex data types, like 
+(list (list (nat → nat))), that is a list whose elements are lists of functions 
+from natural numbers to natural numbers.
+
+Typical elements in (list bool) are for instance,
+  nil nat                                    - the empty list of type nat
+  cons nat true (nil nat)                    - the list containing true
+  cons nat false (cons nat (true (nil nat))) - the list containing false and true
+and so on. 
+
+Note that both constructos nil and cons are expecting in input the type parameter:
+in this case, bool.
+*)
+
+(*
+h2 class="section"Defining your own notation/h2
+We now add a bit of notation, in order to make the syntax more readable. In 
+particular, we would like to write [] instead of (nil A) and a::l instead of 
+(cons A a l), leaving the system the burden to infer A, whenever possible.
+*)
+
 notation "hvbox(hd break :: tl)"
   right associative with precedence 47
   for @{'cons $hd $tl}.
@@ -21,99 +51,240 @@ notation "hvbox(l1 break @ l2)"
 interpretation "nil" 'nil = (nil ?).
 interpretation "cons" 'cons hd tl = (cons ? hd tl).
 
-definition not_nil: ∀A:Type[0].a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A → Prop ≝
- λA.λl.match l with [ nil ⇒ a href="cic:/matita/basics/logic/True.ind(1,0,0)"True/a| cons hd tl ⇒ a href="cic:/matita/basics/logic/False.ind(1,0,0)"False/a].
-
-theorem nil_cons:
-  ∀A:Type[0].∀l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A.∀a:A. aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a:l a title="leibnitz's non-equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"≠/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/a].
-  #A #l #a @a href="cic:/matita/basics/logic/Not.con(0,1,1)"nmk/a #Heq (change with (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/not_nil.def(1)"not_nil/a ? (aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a:l))) >Heq //
-qed.
-
-let rec append A (l1: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A) l2 on l1 ≝ 
+(* 
+h2 class="section"Basic operations on lists/h2
+Let us define a few basic functions over lists. Our first example is the 
+append function, concatenating two lists l1 and l2. The natural way is to proceed 
+by recursion on l1: if it is empty the result is simply l2, while if l1 = hd::tl 
+then we recursively append tl and l2 , and then add hd as first element. Note that 
+the append function itself is polymorphic, and the first argument it takes in input 
+is the type A of the elements of two lists l1 and l2. 
+Moreover, since the append function takes in input several parameters, we must also 
+specify in the its defintion on which one of them we are recurring: in this case l1.
+If not othewise specified, recursion is supposed to act on the first argument of the
+function.*)
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="append"let rec append A (l1: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A) l2 on l1 ≝ 
   match l1 with
   [ nil ⇒  l2
-  | cons hd tl ⇒  hd a title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a: append A tl l2 ].
+  | cons hd tl ⇒  hd a title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aspan class="error" title="Parse error: [sym:] expected after [sym:] (in [term])"/spana title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a append A tl l2 ].
 
-definition hd ≝ λA.λl: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A.λd:A.
-  match l with [ nil ⇒ d | cons a _ ⇒ a].
+interpretation "append" 'append l1 l2 = (append ? l1 l2).
 
-definition tail ≝  λA.λl: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A.
-  match l with [ nil ⇒  a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/a] | cons hd tl ⇒  tl].
+(* As usual, the function is executable. For instance, (append A nil l) reduces to
+l, as shown by the following example: *)
 
-interpretation "append" 'append l1 l2 = (append ? l1 l2).
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="nil_append"example nil_append: ∀A.∀l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A. a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aspan class="error" title="Parse error: [term] expected after [sym[] (in [term])"/spana title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/a l a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a l.
+#A #l normalize // qed.
+
+(* Proving that l @ [] = l is just a bit more complex. The situation is exactly 
+the same as for the addition operation of the previous chapter: since append is 
+defined by recutsion over the first argument, the computation of l @ [] is stuck, 
+and we must proceed by induction on l *) 
 
-theorem append_nil: ∀A.∀l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A.l a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/a] a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a l.
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="append_nil"lemma append_nil: ∀A.∀l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A.l a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/aspan class="error" title="Parse error: [term level 46] expected after [sym@] (in [term])"/spanspan class="error" title="Parse error: [term level 46] expected after [sym@] (in [term])"/span a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a l.
 #A #l (elim l) normalize // qed.
 
-theorem associative_append: 
- ∀A.a href="cic:/matita/basics/relations/associative.def(1)"associative/a (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A) (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/append.fix(0,1,1)"append/a A).
+(* similarly, we can define the two functions head and tail. Since we can only define
+total functions, we should decide what to do in case the input list is empty. 
+For tl, it is natural to return the empty list; for hd, we take in input a default 
+element d of type A to return in this case. *)
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="head"definition head ≝ λA.λl: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A.λd:A.
+  match l with [ nil ⇒ d | cons a _ ⇒ a].
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="tail"definition tail ≝  λA.λl: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A.
+  match l with [ nil ⇒  a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a | cons hd tl ⇒  tl].
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="ex_head"example ex_head: ∀A.∀a,d,l. a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/head.def(1)"head/a A (aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/al) d a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/aspan class="error" title="Parse error: [term] expected after [sym=] (in [term])"/spanspan class="error" title="Parse error: [term] expected after [sym=] (in [term])"/span a.
+#A #a #d #l normalize // qed.
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="ex_tail"example ex_tail: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/tail.def(1)"tail/a ? (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.con(0,2,1)"cons/a ? a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/bool.con(0,1,0)"true/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a.
+normalize // qed.
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="associative_append"theorem associative_append: 
+∀A.∀l1,l2,l3: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A. (l1 a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/a l2) a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/a l3 a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a l1 a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/a (l2 a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/a l3).
 #A #l1 #l2 #l3 (elim l1) normalize // qed.
 
-(* qualcosa di strano qui theorem append_cons:∀A.∀a:A.∀l,l1: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A.la title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/a(aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a:l1)a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a (l a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/a a title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa]) a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/a l1.
-/2/ qed. *)
+(* Problemi con la notazione *)
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="a_append"lemma a_append: ∀A.∀a.∀l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A. (aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a) a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/a l a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/al.
+// qed.
 
-theorem nil_append_elim: ∀A.∀l1,l2: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A.∀P:?→?→Prop. 
-  l1a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/al2a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/a] → P a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/a] a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/a] → P l1 l2.
-#A #l1 #l2 #P (cases l1) normalize //
-#a #l3 #heq destruct
-qed.
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="append_cons"theorem append_cons:
+∀A.∀a:A.∀l,l1: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A.la title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/a(aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/al1)a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a (l a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/a (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.con(0,2,1)"cons/a ? a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a)) a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/a l1.
+// qed. 
 
-theorem nil_to_nil:  ∀A.∀l1,l2:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a span style="text-decoration: underline;"/spanA.
-  l1a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/al2 a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/a] → l1 a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/a] a title="logical and" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"∧/a l2 a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/a].
-#A #l1 #l2 #isnil @(a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/nil_append_elim.def(3)"nil_append_elim/a A l1 l2) /2/
-qed.
+(* Other typical functions over lists are those computing the length 
+of a list, and the function returning the nth element *)
 
-(* iterators *)
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="length"let rec length (A:Type[0]) (l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A) on l ≝ 
+match l with 
+  [ nil ⇒ a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,1,0)"O/a
+    | cons a tl ⇒ a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,2,0)"S/a (length A tl)].
 
-let rec map (A,B:Type[0]) (f: A → B) (l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A) on l: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a B ≝
- match l with [ nil ⇒ a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/a] | cons x tl ⇒ f x a title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a: (map A B f tl)].
-  
-let rec foldr (A,B:Type[0]) (f:A → B → B) (b:B) (l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A) on l :B ≝  
- match l with [ nil ⇒ b | cons a l ⇒ f a (foldr A B f b l)].
- 
-definition filter ≝ 
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="nth"let rec nth n (A:Type[0]) (l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A) (d:A)  ≝  
+  match n with
+    [O ⇒ a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/head.def(1)"head/a A l d
+    |S m ⇒ nth m A (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/tail.def(1)"tail/a A l) d].
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="ex_length"example ex_length: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/length.fix(0,1,1)"length/a ? (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.con(0,2,1)"cons/a ? a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,1,0)"O/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,2,0)"S/a a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,1,0)"O/a.
+normalize // qed.
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="ex_nth"example ex_nth: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/nth.fix(0,0,2)"nth/a (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,2,0)"S/a a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,1,0)"O/a) ? (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.con(0,2,1)"cons/a ? (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,2,0)"S/a a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,1,0)"O/a) (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.con(0,2,1)"cons/a ? a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,1,0)"O/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aspan class="error" title="Parse error: [term] expected after [sym[] (in [term])"/spana title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a)) a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,1,0)"O/a a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,1,0)"O/a.
+normalize // qed.
+
+(* Proving that the length of l1@l2 is the sum of the lengths of l1
+and l2 just requires a trivial induction on the first list. *)
+
+ img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="length_add"lemma  length_add: ∀A.∀l1,l2:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A. 
+  a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/length.fix(0,1,1)"length/a ? (l1a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/al2) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/add.fix(0,0,1)"add/a (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/length.fix(0,1,1)"length/a ? l1) (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/length.fix(0,1,1)"length/a ? l2).
+#A #l1 elim l1 normalize // qed. 
+
+(* 
+h2 class="section"Comparing Costructors/h2
+Let us come to a more interesting question. How can we prove that the empty 
+list is different from any list with at least one element, that is from any list 
+of the kind (a::l)? We start defining a simple predicate stating if a list is 
+empty or not. The predicate is computed by inspection over the list *)
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="is_nil"definition is_nil: ∀A:Type[0].a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A → Prop ≝
+λA.λl.match l with [ nil ⇒ l a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a | cons hd tl ⇒ (l a title="leibnitz's non-equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"≠/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a)].
+
+(* Next we need a simple result about negation: if you wish to prove ¬P you are
+authorized to add P to your hypothesis: *)
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="neg_aux"lemma neg_aux : ∀P:Prop. (P → a title="logical not" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"¬/aP) → a title="logical not" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"¬/aP.
+#P #PtonegP % /span class="autotactic"3span class="autotrace" trace a href="cic:/matita/basics/logic/absurd.def(2)"absurd/a/span/span/ qed. 
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="diff_cons_nil"theorem diff_cons_nil:
+∀A:Type[0].∀l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A.∀a:A. aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/al a title="leibnitz's non-equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"≠/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a.
+#A #l #a @a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/neg_aux.def(3)"neg_aux/a #Heq 
+(* we start assuming the new hypothesis Heq of type a::l = [] using neg_aux. 
+Next we use the change tactic to pass from the current goal a::l≠ [] to the 
+expression is_nil a::l, convertible with it. *)
+(change with (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/is_nil.def(1)"is_nil/a ? (aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/al))) 
+(* Now, we rewrite with Heq, obtaining (is_nil A []), that reduces to the trivial 
+goal [] = [] *)
+>Heq // qed.
+
+(* As an application of the previous result let us prove that l1@l2 is empty if 
+and only if both l1 and l2 are empty. 
+The idea is to proceed by cases on l1: if l1=[] the statement is trivial; on the 
+other side, if l1 = a::tl, then the hypothesis (a::tl)@l2 = [] is absurd, hence we 
+can prove anything from it. 
+When we know we can prove both A and ¬A, a sensible way to proceed is to apply 
+False_ind: ∀P.False → P to the current goal, that breaks down to prove False, and 
+then absurd: ∀A:Prop. A → ¬A → False to reduce to the contradictory cases. 
+Usually, you may invoke automation to take care to solve the absurd case. *)
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="nil_to_nil"lemma nil_to_nil:  ∀A.∀l1,l2:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a span style="text-decoration: underline;"/spanA.
+  l1a title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/al2 a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a → l1 a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a a title="logical and" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"∧/a l2 a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a.
+#A #l1 cases l1 normalize /span class="autotactic"2span class="autotrace" trace a href="cic:/matita/basics/logic/And.con(0,1,2)"conj/a/span/span/ #a #tl #l2 #H @a href="cic:/matita/basics/logic/False_ind.fix(0,1,1)"False_ind/a /span class="autotactic"2span class="autotrace" trace a href="cic:/matita/basics/logic/absurd.def(2)"absurd/a/span/span/ qed. 
+
+(* 
+h2 class="section"Higher Order Functionals/h2
+Let us come to some important, higher order, polymorphic functionals 
+acting over lists. A typical example is the map function, taking a function
+f:A → B, a list l = [a1; a2; ... ; an] and returning the list 
+[f a1; f a2; ... ; f an]. *)
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="map"let rec map (A,B:Type[0]) (f: A → B) (l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A) on l: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a B ≝
+ match l with [ nil ⇒ a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a | cons x tl ⇒ f x a title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a (map A B f tl)].
+
+(* Another major example is the fold function, that taken a list 
+l = [a1; a2; ... ;an], a base value b:B, and a function f: A → B → B returns 
+(f a1 (f a2 (... (f an b)...))). *)
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="foldr"let rec foldr (A,B:Type[0]) (f:A → B → B) (b:B) (l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A) on l :B ≝  
+  match l with [ nil ⇒ b | cons a l ⇒ f a (foldr A B f b l)].
+
+(* As an example of application of foldr, let us use it to define a filter 
+function that given a list l: list A and a boolean test p:A → bool returns the 
+sublist of elements satisfying the test. In this case, the result type B of 
+foldr should be (list A), the base value is [], and f: A → list A →list A is 
+the function that taken x and l returns x::l, if x satisfies the test, and l 
+otherwise. We use an if_then_else function included from bool.ma to this purpose. *)
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="filter"definition filter ≝ 
   λT.λp:T → a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/bool.ind(1,0,0)"bool/a.
-  a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/foldr.fix(0,4,1)"foldr/a T (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a T) (λx,l0.a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/if_then_else.def(1)"if_then_else/a ? (p x) (xa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a:l0) l0) a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/a].
+  a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/foldr.fix(0,4,1)"foldr/a T (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a T) (λx,l0. if p x then xa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/al0 else l0) a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a.
 
-lemma filter_true : ∀A,l,a,p. p a a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/bool.con(0,1,0)"true/a → 
-  a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/filter.def(2)"filter/a A p (aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a:l) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a a title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a: a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/filter.def(2)"filter/a A p l.
+(* Here are a couple of simple lemmas on the behaviour of the filter function. 
+It is often convenient to state such lemmas, in order to be able to use rewriting
+as an alternative to reduction in proofs: reduction is a bit difficult to control.
+*)
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="filter_true"lemma filter_true : ∀A,l,a,p. p a a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/bool.con(0,1,0)"true/a → 
+  a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/filter.def(2)"filter/a A p (aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/al) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a a title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/filter.def(2)"filter/a A p l.
 #A #l #a #p #pa (elim l) normalize >pa // qed.
 
-lemma filter_false : ∀A,l,a,p. p a a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/bool.con(0,2,0)"false/a → 
-  a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/filter.def(2)"filter/a A p (aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a:l) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/filter.def(2)"filter/a A p l.
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="filter_false"lemma filter_false : ∀A,l,a,p. p a a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/bool.con(0,2,0)"false/a → 
+  a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/filter.def(2)"filter/a A p (aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/al) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/filter.def(2)"filter/a A p l.
 #A #l #a #p #pa (elim l) normalize >pa normalize // qed.
 
-theorem eq_map : ∀A,B,f,g,l. (∀x.f x a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a g x) → a href="cic:/matita/basics/list/map.fix(0,3,1)"map/a A B f l a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a href="cic:/matita/basics/list/map.fix(0,3,1)"map/a A B g l.
-#A #B #f #g #l #eqfg (elim l) normalize // qed.
+(* As another example, let us redefine the map function using foldr. The
+result type B is (list B), the base value b is [], and the fold function 
+of type A → list B → list B is the function mapping a and l to (f a)::l.
+*)
 
-(*
-let rec dprodl (A:Type[0]) (f:A→Type[0]) (l1:list A) (g:(∀a:A.list (f a))) on l1 ≝
-match l1 with
-  [ nil ⇒ nil ?  
-  | cons a tl ⇒ (map ??(dp ?? a) (g a)) @ dprodl A f tl g
-  ]. *)
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="map_again"definition map_again ≝ λA,B,f,l. a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/foldr.fix(0,4,1)"foldr/a A (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a B) (λa,l.f aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/al) a title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"[/aa title="nil" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"]/a l.
 
-(**************************** length ******************************)
+(* 
+h2 class="section"Extensional equality/h2
+Can we prove that map_again is "the same" as map? We should first of all
+clarify in which sense we expect the two functions to be equal. Equality in
+Matita has an intentional meaning: it is the smallest predicate induced by 
+convertibility, i.e. syntactical equality up to normalization. From an 
+intentional point of view, map and map_again are not functions, but programs,
+and they are clearly different. What we would like to say is that the two
+programs behave in the same way: this is a different, extensional equality 
+that can be defined in the following way. *)
 
-let rec length (A:Type[0]) (l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A) on l ≝ 
-  match l with 
-    [ nil ⇒ a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,1,0)"O/a
-    | cons a tl ⇒ a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter2/nat.con(0,2,0)"S/a (length A tl)].
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="ExtEq"definition ExtEq ≝ λA,B:Type[0].λf,g:A→B.∀a:A.f a a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a g a.
 
-let rec nth n (A:Type[0]) (l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A) (d:A)  ≝  
-  match n with
-    [O ⇒ a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/hd.def(1)"hd/a A l d
-    |S m ⇒ nth m A (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/tail.def(1)"tail/a A l) d].
+(* Proving that map and map_again are extentionally equal in the 
+previous sense can be proved by a trivial structural induction on the list *)
+
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="eq_maps"lemma eq_maps: ∀A,B,f. a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/ExtEq.def(1)"ExtEq/a ?? (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/map.fix(0,3,1)"map/a A B f) (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/map_again.def(2)"map_again/a A B f).
+#A #B #f #n (elim n) normalize // qed. 
+
+(* Let us make another remark about extensional equality. It is clear that,
+if f is extensionally equal to g, then (map A B f) is extensionally equal to
+(map A B g). Let us prove it. *)
 
-(**************************** fold *******************************)
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="eq_map"theorem eq_map : ∀A,B,f,g. a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/ExtEq.def(1)"ExtEq/a A B f g → a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/ExtEq.def(1)"ExtEq/a ?? (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/map.fix(0,3,1)"map/a span style="text-decoration: underline;"/spanA B f) (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/map.fix(0,3,1)"map/a A B g).
+#A #B #f #g #eqfg
+ 
+(* the relevant point is that we cannot proceed by rewriting f with g via
+eqfg, here. Rewriting only works with Matita intensional equality, while here
+we are dealing with a different predicate, defined by the user. The right way 
+to proceed is to unfold the definition of ExtEq, and work by induction on l, 
+as usual when we want to prove extensional equality between functions over 
+inductive types; again the rest of the proof is trivial. *)
+
+#l (elim l) normalize // qed.
 
-let rec fold (A,B:Type[0]) (op:B → B → B) (b:B) (p:A→a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/bool.ind(1,0,0)"bool/a) (f:A→B) (l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A) on l :B ≝  
+(*
+h2 class="section"Big Operators/h2
+Building a library of basic functions, it is important to achieve a 
+good degree of abstraction and generality, in order to be able to reuse
+suitable instances of the same function in different context. This has not
+only the obvious benefit of factorizing code, but especially to avoid 
+repeating proofs of generic properties over and over again.
+A really convenient tool is the following combination of fold and filter,
+that essentially allow you to iterate on every subset of a given enumerated
+(finite) type, represented as a list. *) 
+
+ img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="fold"let rec fold (A,B:Type[0]) (op:B→B→B) (b:B) (p:A→a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/bool.ind(1,0,0)" title="null"bool/a) (f:A→B) (l:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A) on l:B ≝  
  match l with 
   [ nil ⇒ b 
-  | cons a l ⇒ a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/if_then_else.def(1)"if_then_else/a ? (p a) (op (f a) (fold A B op b p f l))
+  | cons a l ⇒ if p a then op (f a) (fold A B op b p f l) else
       (fold A B op b p f l)].
-      
-notation "\fold  [ op , nil ]_{ ident i ∈ l | p} f"
+
+(* It is also important to spend a few time to introduce some fancy notation
+for these iterators. *)
+
+ notation "\fold  [ op , nil ]_{ ident i ∈ l | p} f"
   with precedence 80
 for @{'fold $op $nil (λ${ident i}. $p) (λ${ident i}. $f) $l}.
 
@@ -123,38 +294,38 @@ for @{'fold $op $nil (λ${ident i}.true) (λ${ident i}. $f) $l}.
 
 interpretation "\fold" 'fold op nil p f l = (fold ? ? op nil p f l).
 
-theorem fold_true: 
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="fold_true"theorem fold_true: 
 ∀A,B.∀a:A.∀l.∀p.∀op:B→B→B.∀nil.∀f:A→B. p a a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/bool.con(0,1,0)"true/a → 
-  a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a:l| p i} (f i) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a 
-    op (f a) a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ l| p i} (f i). 
+  a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/al| p ia title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"}/a (f i) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a 
+    op (f a) a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ l| p ia title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"}/a (f i). 
 #A #B #a #l #p #op #nil #f #pa normalize >pa // qed.
 
-theorem fold_false: 
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="fold_false"theorem fold_false: 
 ∀A,B.∀a:A.∀l.∀p.∀op:B→B→B.∀nil.∀f.
-p a a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/bool.con(0,2,0)"false/a → a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/a:l| p i} (f i) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a 
-  a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ l| p i} (f i).
+p a a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/bool.con(0,2,0)"false/a → a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/aa title="cons" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)":/al| p ia title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"}/a (f i) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a 
+  a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ l| p ia title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"}/a (f i).
 #A #B #a #l #p #op #nil #f #pa normalize >pa // qed.
 
-theorem fold_filter: 
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="fold_filter"theorem fold_filter: 
 ∀A,B.∀a:A.∀l.∀p.∀op:B→B→B.∀nil.∀f:A →B.
-  a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ l| p i} (f i) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a 
-    a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/filter.def(2)"filter/a A p l)} (f i).
+  a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ l| p ia title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"}/a (f i) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a 
+    a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ (a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/filter.def(2)"filter/a A p l)a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"}/a (f i).
 #A #B #a #l #p #op #nil #f elim l //  
 #a #tl #Hind cases(a href="cic:/matita/basics/bool/true_or_false.def(1)"true_or_false/a (p a)) #pa 
   [ >a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/filter_true.def(3)"filter_true/a // > a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/fold_true.def(3)"fold_true/a // >a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/fold_true.def(3)"fold_true/a //
   | >a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/filter_false.def(3)"filter_false/a // >a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/fold_false.def(3)"fold_false/a // ]
 qed.
 
-record Aop (A:Type[0]) (nil:A) : Type[0] ≝
-  {op :2> A → A → A; 
-   nill:∀a. op nil a a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a; 
-   nilr:∀a. op a nil a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a;
-   assoc: ∀a,b,c.op a (op b c) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a op (op a b) c
-  }.
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="Aop"record Aop (A:Type[0]) (nil:A) : Type[0] ≝
+{op :2> A → A → A; 
+  nill:∀a. op nil a a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a; 
+  nilr:∀a. op a nil a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a a;
+  assoc: ∀a,b,c.op a (op b c) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a op (op a b) c
+}.
 
-theorem fold_sum: ∀A,B. ∀I,J:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A.∀nil.∀op:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/Aop.ind(1,0,2)"Aop/a B nil.∀f.
-  op (a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i∈I} (f i)) (a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i∈J} (f i)) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a
-    a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i∈(Ia title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/aJ)} (f i).
+img class="anchor" src="icons/tick.png" id="fold_sum"theorem fold_sum: ∀A,B. ∀I,J:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/list.ind(1,0,1)"list/a A.∀nil.∀op:a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/Aop.ind(1,0,2)"Aop/a B nil.∀f:A → B.
+ op (a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ Ia title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"}/a (f i)) (a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ Ja title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"}/a (f i)) a title="leibnitz's equality" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"=/a 
+   a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"\fold/a[op,nil]_{i ∈ (Ia title="append" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"@/aJ)a title="\fold" href="cic:/fakeuri.def(1)"}/a (f i).
 #A #B #I #J #nil #op #f (elim I) normalize 
-  [>a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/nill.fix(0,2,2)"nill/a //|#a #tl #Hind <a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/assoc.fix(0,2,2)"assoc/a //]
+  [>a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/nill.fix(0,2,2)"nill/a//|#a #tl #Hind <a href="cic:/matita/tutorial/chapter3/assoc.fix(0,2,2)"assoc/a //]
 qed.
\ No newline at end of file